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with new information as it is published.

A compelling body of evidence indicates that strength training can be a safe, effective and worthwhile method of conditioning for children and teenagers. Despite outdated concerns regarding the appropriateness of strength training for boys and girls, the following research articles, chapters and books provide evidence and reassurance that youth strength training can be an enjoyable, beneficial and healthy experience for children and teenagers.

• AAPHERD. Physical Best Activity Guide. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1999
   
• American Academy of Pediatrics: Strength training by children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 107: 1470-1472, 2001
   
•  American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine. Proceedings of the conference on strength training and the prepubescent. Chicago: American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine, 1988
   
• Baechle, T. & Earle, R. Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning, 2^nd ed. Champaign, Human Kinetics, 2000.
   
• Bailey, D., Martin, A: Physical activity and skeletal health in adolescents. Pediatric Exercise Science 6: 330-347. 1994.
   
• Bass, S. The prepubertal years. A uniquely opportune stage of growth when the skeleton is most responsive to exercise? Sports Medicine. 30: 73-78, 2000.
   
• Blanksby, B. Gregor, J., Anthropometric, strength, and physiological changes in male and female swimmers with progressive resistance training. Australian J Sport Sc 1: 3- 6, 1981.
   
• Blimkie, C: Age- and sex- associated variation in strength during childhood: Anthropometric, morphologic, neurological, biomechanical, endocrinologic, genetic and physical activity correlates. In: Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Benchmark, 1989. pp 99-163.
   
• Blimkie, C, Rice S, Webber J, et al: Effects of resistance training on bone mass and density in adolescent females. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 25 (suppl): S48, 1993.
   
• Blimkie, C. Resistance training during preadolescence. Issues and Controversies. Sports Med. 15: 389-407, 1993.
   
• Blimkie, C, Martin, J., Ramsay, D. et al. The effects of detraining and maintenance weight training on strength development in prepubertal boys. Can J Sport Sci. 14: 104P, 1989.
   
• Bompa, T. Total Training for Young Champions. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2000.
   
• Borra S, Schwartz N, Spain, C, et al. Food, physical activity, and fun: Inspiring Americaís kids to more healthful lifestyles. J Am Dietetic Assoc 95: 816-818, 1995.
   
• Brady T, Cahill B, Bodnar, L. Weight training related injuries in the high school athlete. Am J Sports Med, 10: 1-5, 1982.
   
• Brown E, Kimball R. Medical history associated with adolescent power lifting. Pediatrics, 72: 636-644, 1983.
   
• Bulgakova N, Vorontsov A, Fomichenko T. Improving the technical preparedness of young swimmers by using strength training. Soviet Sports Review, 25: 102-104, 1990.
   
• Cahill B, Griffith E. Effect of preseason conditioning on the incidence and severity of high school football knee injuries. American Journal of Sports Medicine. 6: 180-184, 1978.
   
• Caine D. Growth plate injury and bone growth: an update. Pediatric. Exercise. Science 2: 209-229, 1990.
   
• Cassell C., Benedict M., Specker, B. Bone mineral density in elite 7- to 9-yr-old female gymnasts and swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 28: 1243-1246. 1996.
   
• Chu, D., Jordan, P. Plyo Play for Kids. Ather Publishing Company, Castro Valley, CA. 1996.
   
• Clarke D, Vaccaro P, Andresen, N. Physiologic alterations in 7- to 9- year old boys following a season of competitive wrestling. Research Q Exercise Sport, 55: 318- 322, 1984.
   
• Conroy, B. , Kraemer, W. Maresh, C., Fleck, S., Stone, M., Fry, A., Miller, P., Dalsky, G. . Bone mineral density in elite junior Olympic weightlifters Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 25: 1103-1109, 1993.
   
• Corbin, C., Dale, D., Pangrazi, R. Promoting physically active lifestyles amoung youth. J Physical Educucation, Recreation and Dance. 70: 26-28, 1999.
   
• DeRenne, C. Hetzler, R., Buxton, B et al. Effects of training frequency on strength maintenance in pubescent baseball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 10: 8-14, 1996.
   
• Dietz, W. Children and television. In Green, M., Hagerty, R. (eds). Ambulatory Pediatrics IV. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1990, pp 39-41.
   
• Docherty, D., Wenger, H., Collis, M. et al. The effects of variable speed resistance training on strength development in prepubertal boys. Journal of Human Movement Studies. 13: 377-382, 1987.
   
• Dominguez, R. Shoulder pain in age group swimmers. In Erikkson, B., Furberg, B (eds): Swimming Medicine IV. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1978, pp. 105-109.
   
• Faigenbaum, A., Youth resistance training. President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports Research Digest. 4 (3): 1-8, 2003.
   
• Faigenbaum, A., Youth strength training: Benefits, risks and program design considerations. American Journal of Medicine and Sports, 1: 243-254, 1999.
   
• Faigenbaum, A. Preseason conditioning for high school athletes. Strength and Conditioning. 23: 70-72, 2001.
   
• Faigenbaum, A. Psychosocial benefits of prepubescent strength training. Strength Conditioning. 17: 28-32, 1995.
   
• Faigenbaum, A. Resistance training for adolescent athletes. Athletic Therapy Today. 7(6): 30-35. 2002.
   
• Faigenbaum, A. Strength training and childrenís health. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 72: 24-30, 2001.
   
• Faigenbaum, A. Strength training for children and adolescents. Clinics in Sports Medicine. 19: 593-619, 2000.
   
• Faigenbaum, A. et al. Effects of different resistance training protocols on upper body strength and endurance development in children. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 15(4): 459-465, 2001.
   
• Faigenbaum, A., Chu, D. Plyometric training for children and adolescents. ACSM Current Comment. Dec, 2001.
   
• Faigenbaum, A., Kraemer, W. Cahill, B. et al. Youth resistance training: Position statement paper and literature review. Strength & Conditioning. 18: 62-75, 1996.
   
• Faigenbaum, A., La Rosa Loud, R., OíConnell, J. et al. Effects of different resistance training protocols on upper body strength and endurance development in children. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 15(4): 459-465. 2001.
   
• Faigenbaum, A., Micheli, L. Preseason conditioning for the preadolescent athlete. Pediatric Annalss. 29: 156-161, 2000.
   
• Faigenbaum, A., Milliken, L., LaRosa Loud, R., Burak, B., Doherty, C., & Westcott, W. (2002). Comparison of 1 and 2 days per week of strength training in children. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 73(4), 416-424.

  Faigenbaum, A., Milliken, L., & Westcott, W. (2003). Maximal strength testing in healthy children. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 17(1): 162-166.
   

• Faigenbaum, A., Polakowski, C. Olympic Style lifting, Kid style. Strength Conditioning, 1999.
   
• Faigenbaum, A., Westcott, W. Youth Fitness. San Diego, CA: American Council on Exercise, 2001.
   
• Faigenbaum, A., Westcott, W., Long, C., Loud, R., Delmonico, M., Micheli, L. Relationship between repetitions and selected percentages of the one repetition maximum in healthy children. Pediatric Physical Therapy. 10: 110-113. 1998.
   
• Faigenbaum, A., Westcott, W., Micheli, L. et al. The effects of strength training and detraining on children. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 10: 109-114, 1996.
   
• Faigenbaum, A.,, Westcott, W. LaRosa-Loud, R et al. The effects of different ressistance training protocols on muscular strength and endurance development in children. Pediatrics. 104: e5. 1999.
   
• Faigenbaum, A., Zaichkowsky, L.,Westcott, W. et al. The effects of a twice per week strength training program on children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 5: 339-346. 1993.
   
• Faigenbaum, A., Zaichkowsky, L.,Westcott, W. et al. Psychological effects of strength training on children. Journal of Sport Behavior. 20: 164-175. 1997.
   
• Falk, B, Mor, G. The effects of resistance and martial arts training in 6 to 8 year old boys. Pediatric. Exercise. Science. 8: 48-56. 1996.
   
• Falk, B., Sadres, E., Constantini, N. et al. The association between adiposity and the response to resistance training among pre and early-pubertal boys. Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology and Metabolism. 15, 597-606. 2002.
   
• Falk, B., Tenenbaum, G. The effectiveness of resistance training in children. A meta-analysis. Sports Medicine. 22: 176-186, 1996.
   
• Flanagan, S., Laubach, L., DeMarco, G. Effects of two different strength training modes on motor performance in children. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 73(3): 340-344, 2002.
   
• Fleck, S., Falkel, J. Value of resistance training for the reduction of sports injuries. Sports Med. 3: 61-68, 1986.
   
• Ford, H. Puckett, J. Comparative effects of prescribed weight training and basketball programs on basketball skill test scores of ninth grade boys. Perceptual Motor Skills, 56: 23-26. 1983.
   
• Fripp, R, Hodgson, J. Effect of resistive training on plasma lipid and lipoprotein levels in male adolescents. Journal of Pediatrics. 111: 926-931, 1987.
   
• Fukunga, T., Funato, K., Ikegawa, S. The effects of resistance training on muscle area and strength in prepubescent age. Annals Physiol Anthrop. 11: 357-364, 1992.
   
• Gallagher, J., DeLorme, T. The use of progressive resistance exercise in adolescence. The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. 31-A (4): 847-858, 1949.
   
• Hamill, B. Relative safety of weight lifting and weight training. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 8: 53-57, 1994.
   
• Heath, G., Pratt, M., Warren, C. et al. Physical activity patterns in American high schools students. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 148: 1131-1136, 1994.
   
• Heinonen, A. et al. (2000). High impact exercise and bones of growing girls: A 9-month controlled trial. Osteoporosis International. 11: 1010-1017.
   
• Hejna, W., Rosenberg, A., Buturusis, D et al., The prevention of sports injuries in high school students through strength training. National Strength and Conditioning Assoc J. 4: 28-31, 1982.
   
• Hetzler, R., DeRenne, C., Buxton, B et al. Effects of 12 weeks of strength training on anaerobic power in prepubescent male athletes. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 11: 174-181.
   
• Holloway, J., Beuter, A, Duda, J. Self-efficacy and training in adolescent girls. Journal of Applied. Social Psychology. 18: 699-719, 1988.
   
• Isaacs, L., Pohlman, R., Craig, B. Effects of resistance training on strength development in prepubescent females. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 26: S210, 1994.
   
• Kraemer, W., Fleck, S. Strength Training for Young Athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetic Publishers, 1993.
   
• Kraemer, W., Fry, A., Frykman, P. et al. Resistance training and youth. Pediatric Exerc Sci, 1: 336-350, 1989.
   
• LaRosa Loud, R. Take some of the work our of kids workout. Perspective. May, 34-37, 1999.
   
• Lillegard, W., Brown, E., Wilson, D., Henderson, R., & Lewis, E. Efficacy of strength training in prepubescent to early postpubescent males and females: effects of gender and maturity. Pediatric Rehabilitation. 1 (3): 147-157, 1997.
   
• Loucks, A. Osteoporosis prevention begins in childhood. In: Brown, E, Brown, C, (eds): Competitive Sports for children and youth. Champaign: Human Kinetics Books, 1988, pp. 213- 223.
   
• Magill, R., Anderson, D. Critical periods as optimal readiness for learning sports skills. In F. Smoll & R. Smith (Eds.), Children and youth in sport: A biopsychosocial perspective (pp. 57-72). Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark. 1995.
   
• Marino, J., & Short, K. Teens who build strength, build esteem, too. Perspective, May: 41-44, 1999.
   
• Mediate, P. Not just reps and sets. Easterner. 23: 6, 1999.
   
• Melnick, M, Mookerjee, S. Effects of advanced weight training on body cathexis and self-esteem. Percep. Mot. Skills 72: 1335-1345. 1991.
   
• Mersch, F., Stoboy, H. Strength training and muscle hypertrophy in children. In: Oseid, S, Carlsen, K (eds). Children and Exercise XIII. Champaign: Human Kinetics Books, 1989, pp. 165-182.
   
• Micheli, L. Overuse injuries in childrenís sports: The growth factor. Orthopedic Clinics of North America. 14, 337-360, 1983.
   
• Micheli, L. Strength training in the young athlete. In: Brown, E., Branta, C (eds): Competitive Sports for Children and Youth. Champaign: Human Kinetics Books, 1988, pp. 99-105.
   
• Micheli, L. The child athlete. In: ACSMís Guidelines for the Team Physician, R. Cantu and L. Micheli, eds, Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger, 1991, pp. 228-241.
   
• Micheli, Sports injuries in children and adolescents. Clinics in Sports Medicine. 14: 727-737. 1995.
   
• Micheli, L. Sports training and the young athlete: How much is enough. Sidelines. 8: 1-4. 1999.
   
• Micheli, L., Smith A., Bachl, N., Rolf, C., Chan, K. Team Physician Manual. Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins,, Tsim Sha Tsui, China, 2001.
   
• Morris, F., Naughton, G., Gibbs, J., Carlson, J., & Wark, J. Prospective ten-month exercise intervention in premenarcheal girls: Positive effects on bone and lean mass. Journal of Bone Mineral Research. 12: 1453-1462, 1997.
   
• Mosher, P. et al. Aerobic circuit exercise training: Effect on adolescents with well-controlled insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 79: 652-657, 1998.
   
• Mostofsky, D., Zaichkowsky, L. Medical and Psychological Aspects of Sport and Exercise. Fitness Information Technology. Morgantown, WV, 2002.
   
• Nielsen, B., Nielsen, K., Behrendt-Hansen, M., et al. Training of "functional muscular strength" in girls 7-19 years old. In Berg, K, Eriksson, B (eds). Children and Exercise IX. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1980, pp. 69-77.
   
• Outerbridge, A ., Micheli, L. Overuse injuries in the young athlete. Clin. Sports Med. 14: 503-516. 1995.
   
• Owens, S., Gutin, B., Allison, J. Effect of physical training on total and visceral ft in obese children. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 31: 143-148. 1999.
   
• Ozmun, J., Mikesky, A., Surburg, P. Neuromuscular adaptations during prepubescent strength training. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23: S31, 1991.
   
• Payne, V., Morrow, J., Johnson, L et al. Resistance training in children and youth: A meta-analysis. Research Quarterly in Exercise and Sport. 68: 80-89, 1997.
   
• Pfeiffer, R., Francis, R. Effects of strength training on muscle development in prepubescent, pubescent and postpubescent males. Physician and Sports Medicine, 14: 134-143, 1986.
   
• Pikosky, M., Faigenbaum, A., Westcott, W., Rodriguez, N. Effects of resistance training on protein utilization in healthy children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 34(5): 820-827. 2002.
   
• Queary, J.,Laubach, L. The effects of muscular strength/endurance training. Technique. 12: 9-11. 1992.
   
• Ramsay, J., Blimkie, C., Smith, K. et al. Strength training effects in prepubescent boys. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 22: 605-614, 1990.
   
• Rians, C., Weltman, A., Cahill, B. et al. Strength training for prepubescent males: is it safe? Am J Sports Med, 15: 483-489, 1987.
   
• Risser, W. Weight training injuries in children and adolescents. American Family Physician. 44:2104-2110. 1991.
   
• Rowland, T. Developmental Exercise Physiology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1996.
   
• Sadres, E., Eliakim, A., Constantini, N. et al. The effect of long-term resistance training on anthropometric measures, muscle strength, and self-concept in pre-pubertal boys. Pediatric Exercise Science. 13, 357-372. 2001.
   
• Sailors. M., Berg, K. Comparison of responses to weight training in pubescent boys and men. J Sports Med. 27: 30-37, 1987.
   
• Sale, D. Strength training in children. In Gisolfi, G, Lamb, D, (eds): Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Medicine. Indianapolis: Benchmark Press, 1989, pp. 165-216.
   
• Sallis, J., K. Patrick. Physical activity guidelines for adolescents: Consensus statement Pediatric Exercise Science 6: 302-313. 1994.
   
• Servedio, F., Bartels, R., Hamlin, R., et al. The effects of weight training, using olympic style lifts, on various physiological variables in pre-pubescent boys. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 17: 288, 1985.
   
• Sewall, L., L. Micheli, L. Strength training for children. Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics. 6: 143-146, 1986.
   
• Siegal, J., Camaione, D., Manfredi, T. The effects of upper body resistance training in prepubescent children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 1, 145-154, 1989.
   
• Singer, K., Injuries and disorders of the epiphyses in young athletes. In: Sport for Children and Youths. M. Weiss and D. Gould, eds. Champaign, IL; Human Kinetics, 1984. pp. 141-150.
   
• Smith, A., Andrish, J., Micheli, L: The prevention of sports injuries of children and adolescents. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 25 (Suppl. 8): 1-7. 1993.
   
• Snow-Harter, C., & Marcus, R. Exercise, bone mineral density and osteoporosis. In: Exercise and Sports Science Reviews (Vol. 19). J. Holloszy, ed. Philadelphia: Williams & Wilkins, 1991. pp. 351-388.
   
• Sothern, M., Lofton, M., Udall, J., et al. Inclusion of resistance exercise in a multidisciplinary outpatient treatment program for preadolescent obese children. Southern Medical Journal. 92: 585-592, 1999.
   
• Steben, R., Steben, A. The validity of the stretch shortening cycle in selected jumping events. Journal of Sports Medicine 21: 28-37, 1981.
   
• Suman, O. et al. (2001). Effects of a 12-wk resistance exercise program on skeletal muscle strength in children with burn injuries. Journal of Applied Physiology. 91: 1168-1175.
   
• Sung, R., Yu, C., Chang, S. et al. Effects of dietary intervention and strength training on blood lipid level in obese children. Archives of Diseases in Childhood 86(6): 2002, 407-410. 2002.
   
• Treuth, M., Hunter, G., Pichon, C., Figueroa-Colon, R., & Goran, M. Fitness and energy expenditure after strength training in obese prepubertal girls. Med Science Sports Exerc, 30: 1130-1136, 1998.
   
• Tsolakis, C., Messinis, D., Stergioulas, A., & Dessypris, A. Hormonal responses after strength training and detraining in prepubertal and pubertal boys. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 14: 399-404, 2000.
   
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Physical Activity and Health: A Report from the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 1996.
   
• Virgilio, S. Fitness Education for Children. A Team Approach. Champaign, IL; Human Kinetics, 1977.
   
• Virvidakis, K., Georgiu, E., Korkotsidis, A., et al. Bone mineral content of junior competitive weightlifters. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 11, 244-246, 1990.
   
• Volek, J. et al. Increasing milk favorably affects bone mineral density responses to resistance training in adolescent boys. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 103 (10): 1353-1356, 2003.
   
• Vrijens, F. Muscle strength development in the pre-and post-pubescent age. Med Sport, 11:152-158, 1978.
   
• Weltman, A, Janney, C., Rians, C. et al. The effects of hydraulic resistance strength training in pre-pubertal males. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 18: 629-638, 1986.
   
• Weltman, A., Janney, C., Rians, C. et al. Effects of hydraulic-resistance strength training on serum lipid levels in prepubertal boys. Am J Diseases Child, 141: 777-780, 1987.
   
• Westcott, W. Female response to weight lifting. Journal of Physical Education. 77: 31-33, 1979.
   
• Westcott, W. A new look at youth fitness. American Fitness Quarterly, 11: 16-19, 1992.
   
• Westcott, W. School-based Conditioning programs for physically unfit children. Strength and Conditioning. 17: 5-8, 1995.
   
• Westcott, W., Faigenbaum, A. Sensible strength training during youth. Idea Health and Fitness Source. 16: 32-39, 1998.
   
• Wood, M., Roubenoff, R. Off-season strength and conditioning program for high school athletes. Strength and Conditioning. 22: 15-17, 2000.
   
• Zaricznyj, B., Shattuck, L., Mast, T., et al. Sports-related injuries in school-aged children. American Journal of Sports Medicine. 8: 318-324, 1980.

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